Global poultry meat production has been steadily increasing over the years. In 2017, worldwide poultry meat production exceeded 117.7 million tons, showing a 0.4% growth compared to the previous year(Arvindho, kumar.,2020). Poultry meat accounts for a substantial portion of total meat production, with poultry contributing nearly 40% to the global meat production in 2021(Ákos, Kálmán. Et al., 2023). Poultry on a global scale is growing faster due to several factors like growing demands as an affordable and healthy protein source and higher production efficiency (M., S., Meel, 2012). Toxin traceability in chicken meat and eggs is a major problem that needs to be mitigated in order to guarantee food safety. In addition to mycotoxins, chemical pollutants like dioxin and pesticides are frequently found in poultry feed, which negatively affects the health and productivity of the chickens. These toxins enter the human food chain at the same time as residue, endangering consumers’ health. Producers can successfully reduce the danger of toxins in chicken products, protecting consumer health and guaranteeing the quality of meat and eggs available for purchase, by using strong traceability mechanisms and monitoring processes. Along with mycotoxin contamination, major agricultural commodities like corn and soymeal frequently contain pesticide residues as a result of intensive agricultural practices. Bacterial toxins in poultry feed can have detrimental effects on both poultry health and human consumers. Pathogenic bacteria like Clostridium botulinum and Staphylococcus aureus can produce toxins in feed, leading to intoxication when consumed (Subha, Ganguly., 2013). Feed producers and poultry farmers should adopt the best suitable measures to control multiple toxins like mycotoxins, chemical toxins and bacterial toxins.
As far as poultry is concerned, there are three main types of toxins (Mycotoxins, Chemical toxins and bacterial toxins) contaminating poultry feed, leading to adverse effects on bird health and performance.
- Mycotoxins
Mycotoxins, which are secondary metabolites produced by molds, pose a significant threat to human and animal health, particularly in poultry farming, where they can have severe adverse effects. These toxins are mainly produced by toxigenic fungi like Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium, contaminating crops during growth and storage in optimal conditions of temperature and humidity (B., Sujatha et al., 2024). Among the over 400 known mycotoxins globally, six major pathogenic toxins significantly impact poultry: Aflatoxin, Ochratoxin, Zearalenone, Trichothecene, Fumonisin, and Deoxynivalenol, which are classified into three groups based on their charges and structures (Elena, V, Petrovic et al.,2023). These toxins can lead to a range of health issues in poultry, emphasizing the critical need for effective prevention and management strategies to safeguard animal health and prevent economic losses in the poultry industry.
- Polar toxins have either a positive or negative charge, e.g., Aflatoxin and Fumonisin.
- Non-polar toxins have no charge or a negligible charge, e.g., Ochratoxin and DON.
- Masked mycotoxins are linked to feed materials, particularly Trichothecenes and Zearalenone.
Table.1. Summary of Mycotoxins affecting poultry health
| Toxin name | Polarity | Produced by sps | Organ system damaged | Permissible limit |
| Aflatoxin | Polar | Aspergillus | Carcinogenic | 20 ppb |
| Ochratoxin | Non polar | Aspergillus and Penicillium | Nephrotoxic | 40 ppb |
| Zearalenone | Masked | Fusarium | Reproductive system | 400 ppb |
| Trichothecene | Masked | Fusarium | All systems | 200 ppb |
| Fumonisin | Polar | Fusarium | Liver & Kidney | 100 ppm |
| Deoxynivalenol | Non polar | Fusarium | All systems | 5000 ppb |
- Bacterial toxins
Bacterial toxins, Exotoxins and Endotoxins, play a significant role in causing economic losses in the poultry industry by impacting bird health, reducing productivity, and increasing mortality rates (Philip, H. et al., 2022). While both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria can produce Exotoxins, only Gram-negative bacteria are capable of producing Endotoxins due to the presence of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) in their cell wall (Philip, H. et al., 2022). The release of Endotoxins occurs when Gram-negative bacteria die, and the broken cell wall acts as the Endotoxin, contributing to the detrimental effects on bird health and productivity. Understanding the distinction between Exotoxins and Endotoxins and their sources is crucial in developing strategies to mitigate the impact of bacterial toxins on poultry health and industry sustainability. Bacterial toxins can impact chicken growth rate by influencing the gut microbial composition and bacterial competition.
- Chemical toxins
Chemical toxins in poultry can indeed stem from multiple origins, such as feed ingredients, additives, and environmental pollutants like heavy metals and pesticides (Zukhra, H et al., 2024). These toxins, including mycotoxins, toxic elements, and pesticides, can significantly impact poultry health and productivity, leading to metabolic, structural, and functional abnormalities in various organs (Abdullah, S et al., 2023). Studies have shown that bioaccumulation of heavy metals like arsenic, lead, cadmium, and mercury in poultry tissues can result in histopathological changes and negative effects on enzyme activity and serum parameters (Abdullah, S et al., 2023). Furthermore, the presence of heavy metals and antibiotic residues in poultry feed can pose potential health risks to both poultry and consumers, emphasizing the importance of monitoring and awareness efforts in the poultry industry (Md., Tarikul, Islam,2023).
Table.2. Toxic levels of heavy metals in poultry feed
| Sr. No. | Heavy metal | Toxic level (ppm) |
| 1 | Lead | 10-1000 |
| 2 | Cadmium | 12-40 |
| 3 | Arsenic | 100 |
| 4 | Nickel | 300-500 |
| 5 | Boron | 200-5000 |
| 6 | Aluminum | 500-3000 |
Effects of Toxins on poultry
Mycotoxins primarily affect three major organ systems, with the digestive system being the first. As the entry point for these toxins, the gut experiences disruptions in gut health, villi integrity, and the processes of nutrient digestion and absorption. This results in reduced nutrient availability, adversely impacting overall performance. In broilers, the direct effects include a 12% decrease in feed intake, leading to a 14% reduction in weight gain and a 7% increase in the feed conversion ratio (FCR). Additionally, mycotoxins predispose birds to secondary diseases such as coccidiosis and necrotic enteritis.
These toxins also significantly harm the reproductive system in poultry, causing reduced fertility, impaired egg production, and other reproductive issues. As a result, reproductive functions are compromised, leading to an approximate 0.08% egg loss per week.
The costs incurred due to mycotoxins are extensive. Mycotoxins affect all poultry species, primarily causing severe immunosuppression. This immunosuppression has significant economic repercussions, leading to:
- Increased susceptibility to infectious diseases
- Reactivation of chronic infections
- Potential for secondary reactions
- Higher usage of treatment medicines
- Ineffectiveness of vaccination programs
Strategies to prevent and manage mycotoxins
- Improved farming practices
Poultry farmers may successfully mitigate the risks posed by bacterial, chemical, and mycotoxins by emphasizing on feed quality control, right storage, biosecurity measures, water quality management, vaccinations, biological control approaches, and environmental management.
- Raw materials selection:
Selecting feed ingredients free from mycotoxins is crucial for maintaining poultry health and productivity. Choose reputable suppliers who provide certified mycotoxin-free ingredients. High-quality grains and other feed components are less likely to be contaminated. Additionally, incorporate a variety of feed ingredients to reduce the risk of contamination from any single source.
- Regular Testing and Monitoring
An efficient toxin control strategy in chicken raising must include frequent testing and monitoring. These procedures aid in the early detection of pollutants, guarantee feed and water safety, enforce regulatory compliance, and ultimately protect the productivity and health of the flock. Poultry producers can reduce the risks associated with toxins and improve the overall sustainability and profitability of their businesses by putting in place a thorough and methodical testing procedure.
- Usage of Mold inhibitor
Using mold inhibitors is crucial for controlling toxins in poultry feed and ensuring flock health and productivity. These inhibitors prevent mold growth and mycotoxin formation, which helps maintain feed quality, extend shelf life, and enhance economic outcomes. For effective use, it is essential to apply mold inhibitors properly, regularly monitor feed conditions, and integrate these inhibitors with other feed management practices.
- Feed formulation
Poultry producers may minimize the risks associated with toxins by using high-quality ingredients, including mycotoxin binders, antioxidants, probiotics, prebiotics, and enzymes, and following best practices in feed manufacturing.
- Use of toxin binder
Using toxin binders is an essential part of an effective strategy for controlling toxins in poultry feed. These binders adsorb and neutralize mycotoxins and other harmful substances, helping to maintain feed safety, improve poultry health, and boost productivity. For optimal benefits, it is crucial to select the right toxin binders, apply the correct dosage, and ensure proper application, along with regular monitoring and integration with other management practices. Continuous research and innovation are necessary to develop new and improved toxin binders, ensuring their efficacy and safety in poultry production.
References
- Arvindho, kumar. (2020). Growth Performance and Carcass Quality in Broiler Chickens Fed on Legume Seeds and Rapeseed Meal. Journal of Animal Research, doi: 10.36648/2572-5459.5.2.64
- Ákos, Kálmán., László, Szöllősi. (2023). Global tendencies in turkey meat production, trade and consumption. Acta agraria Debreceniensis, doi: 10.34101/actaagrar/2/12594
- M., S., Meel., T., Sharma. (2021). Effect of Feeding Moringa oleifera Leaf Meal as Feed Additive on the Performance and Carcass Characteristics of Broiler Chicks. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, doi: 10.20546/IJCMAS.2021.1001.006
- Subha, Ganguly. (2013). Microbial Presence in Animal Feed and Ways of Treatment: An Editorial.
- B., Sujatha., G., Dhanalakshmi., S, Nethra. (2024). Mycotoxicosis- a systematic review on mycotoxin-induced toxicities and diseases. doi: 10.58532/v3bams11p1ch2
- Elena, Vasic, Petrovic., Jasenka, Ćosić., Karolina, Vrandečić., Sara, Godena. (2023). Occurrence of mycotoxins in food and beverages. Journal of Central European Agriculture, doi: 10.5513/jcea01/24.1.3704
- Philip, H., W., Mak., Muhammad, Attiq, Rehman., Elijah, G., Kiarie., Edward, Topp., Moussa, S., Diarra. (2022). Production systems and important antimicrobial resistant-pathogenic bacteria in poultry: a review. Journal of animal science and biotechnology, doi: 10.1186/s40104-022-00786-0
- Zukhra, H., Sagdeeva., A., V., Sofronova., Danil, R., Sagdeev., Lilia, E., Matrosova., Svetlana, A., Tanaseva., E., I., Idrisova. (2024). Organoleptic, physico-chemical and microbiological parameters of broiler chicken meat in combined toxicosis. Meždunarodnyj vestnik veterinarii, doi: 10.52419/issn 2072-2419.2024.1.184
- Abdullah, S., M., Aljohani. (2023). Heavy metal toxicity in poultry: a comprehensive review. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, doi: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1161354
- Md., Tarikul, Islam., Fatema, Akter., Md., Faisal, Ferdous., Kamrun, Nahar, Koly., Sabbya, Sachi., Parijat, Biswas., Mehedi, Hasan., Mohammad, Abdus, Sattar, Bhuiyan., Q., F., Quadir., Kazi, Rafiq. (2023). Detection of Heavy Metals and Antibiotic Residues in Poultry Feeds in Selected Areas of Bangladesh. European Journal of Veterinary Medicine, doi: 10.24018/vetmed.2023.3.3.94